Distress and Disasters: Positive Outcomes of the Great Midwestern Floods of 1993

The 1993 flooding of the Midwestern United States was of long duration, spatially extensive, and economically damaging. Estimated property losses exceeded $12 billion, and millions more were suffered in indirect losses (IFMRC 1994; Myers and White 1993). Fifty people were killed. At least 26,000 people were evacuated from their homes, and approximately 100,000 buildings were affected. The floods set hydrological records throughout the Midwest, and many rivers exceeded all recorded levels. In addition, some communities were inundated more than once, while others were under water for prolonged periods (Tobin and Montz 1994). The impacts of this disaster were far-reaching, and recovery took a long time for many communities. Nevertheless, there have been some positive outcomes from these floods, including a renewed appreciation of flooding and the need for community preparation. During the 1990s, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), for instance, refocused attention on the National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA 2003), adopted new initiatives such as Project Impact (FEMA 1998), and expanded its response strategies (Yen and Yen 1996). While these programs have met with mixed success, the shared goal of minimizing flood losses and being prepared is admirable. Another area that has taken on greater significance has been a focus on the psychological stress associated with living in hazard-prone environments. Indeed, it is disasters such as the 1993 floods that have promoted new research initiatives and guided novel responses to mental health concerns, so much so that stress and anxiety are now recognized as significant outcomes of flooding. Furthermore, the acceptance of mental health issues has taken on a global perspective that is intricately linked with concerns of vulnerability, marginalization, and resilience. This paper reviews some of the concerns regarding mental health and flooding, and examines changes that have occurred since 1993. It also places such work in a wider context. As we shall see, this new emphasis has led to many positive outcomes, namely: (i) the development of proactive mental health intervention strategies; (ii) the refinement of vulnerability measures with the incorporation of stress variables; (iii) a broader application of stress concerns to include a global perspective; and (iv) the application of such studies to all disasters. However, it should be noted that this is not a definitive review, but merely an indication of prevailing directions of such research.